The Arnold Richter company (ARRIFLEX) began producing the Arriflex 16 Standard (Or 16S as it is more commonly known in the USA and 16ST in Europe) in 1952, to cater to the demands of the ever growing TV industry. Each camera can be loaded with an internal 100 foot load, or mounted with an external 400ft magazine. The magazine itself is extremely easy to load, as all the threading is done inside the camera. However, magazines require the addition of a torque motor, which rotates the take-up reel as film passes through the camera. Usually, only one torque motor is used for every magazine applied. The turret is a rotateable type, housing 3 arri standard ports. This enables fast interchange of primes and zooms without the need for replacing the taking lens each time. The turret is merely rotated until the 'spare' lens clicks into the focal plane. It has become popular to convert one of these ports to Arriflex bayonet to allow usage of Angenieux and Zeiss zoom lenses. The camera is then referred to as a 16SB. The motor is an interchangeable 'tube' which slips quickly into a hollow at the base side of the camera, thereby allowing a range of different motors to be applied. The more common motor is the variable speed, which contains an adjustable rheostat collar. When the collar is turned, the camera drive speeds or slows accordingly. Depending on voltage, the 16S is capable of pulling it's fastest rate of 62fps and it's slowest at 3fps. Inserting a governor controlled motor, the camera will run at a fixed rate of 24 or 25fps (depending on motor type). However, these motors are no more precise than manually hunting out a 24fps frame rate with the variable speed motor. The only benefit is that the frame rate will not fluctuate with peaks and dips in the battery supply. Power supply is designated at 8volts for the 16S. 12volts can be applied without damaging the drive motors, but the magazine torque motor cannot cope with such a supply for extended periods. Therefore, it is wise to have the torque motor converted if industry standard 12volt batteries are to be used. This consists of placing a resistor across the torque supply, thereby cutting down the voltage running through it. The handgrip is molded into the camera body and with a full 400ft load, can be uncomfortable to hand-hold. However, with the addition of a camera brace or pistol grip, the portability of the Arri 16S is quickly realized. It is also an extremely durable camera and can take a physical abusing that most modern 16mm cameras are not designed to withstand. Although production ended with the introduction of the 16BL more than 20,000 Arriflex ST's were manufactured and most of them are still in active use today. In fact, first time producer/director Robert Rodriguez used one to shoot his low-budget Action movie 'El-Mariachi.' As a low cost, lightweight and extremely reliable camera, it is very popular among film-students and first time buyers. It requires little maintenance, is extremely robust and accessories both new and old can still be found for it today. However, due to the noise of the drive, the camera is only suitable for wild sound shooting.

The Arriflex 16BL Standard 16mm sync sound camera The need to shoot 'sound with picture ' in news gathering and TV production, was fulfilled by Arriflex in 1966 with the introduction of the 16BL. Using an identical film movement to the 16th and 16M, the drive is fitted into a sound proofed housing to create a significantly quieter camera for simultaneous sound recording. The 400ft magazines are designed to be driven by the drive motor rather than a separate torque motor as required for the ST. The laborious internal threading of the film necessary for the ST is reduced to the gate path only for the BL. This means a wide loop is dropped beneath the steady pin and the camera is ready to shoot. The lens port incorporates Arri bayonet as well as standard mount, however all zooms have to be housed in a specially made 'blimp' to further reduce noise emitting from the lens port. To facilitate the synchronizing of sound recorders to the exposed film, pilotone output is available from the camera motor, however with the incorporation of crystal controlled devices, this facility is rarely used today. Although significantly more cumbersome than the ST, the BL lends itself to studio and documentary work, where the recording of synch dialogue is a necessity. However, apart from later models of the BL (the 16BL-EQ) drive motors are not crystal controlled; This requires the addition of an external control box, such as a Minilock, Jensen or Tobin. With earlier reversible type motors, crystal controlling is not possible, as the motor is governed mechanically rather than electronically. Like the ST, the 16BL is still regarded highly among film students and low budget film-makers. It is an extremely robust and reliable camera, easy to operate and maintain. Although it's rather overpowering size and weight can be a disadvantage, the camera is deceptively flexible. As with the ST the 16BL does not lend itself readily to S16 conversion.

The Arriflex SR1 was introduced in 1975. Designated the SR ('Special Reportage') it's purpose was to offer speed and portability to newsgathering and documentary style film-making. There are almost no similarities between the SR range and earlier Arriflex 16mm cameras. 'Coaxial' magazines replace the 'displacement' types thereby clipping on and off the camera body quickly, without the need for threading the film manually through the gate. Lenses do not have to be blimped with the SR range and can accommodate existing Arri standard and bayonet mount lenses. Probably the biggest improvement over the 16BL is the SR's portability and reduced running noise. (Improved even further for the SR2). Advancement in all aspects of electronics and motor engineering enabled the SR to contain onboard crystal control. The motor draws less than 1 Amp with a full 400ft load, thereby allowing compact onboard batteries to be used instead of trailing around a separate power supply. Unfortunately, the average price of an SR1 is 3 times that of a used 16BL. The camera converts readily to Super 16mm however and many SR1 & 2 accessories are still manufactured today. The SR2 upgraded the SR1 in 1982. The design spec remained the same, although now the camera was available in high speed and Super 16mm versions. The electronics had been upgraded and the running noise level reduced further.

The Arriflex 35 - when first introduced at the Leipzig Trade Fair in 1937 - set an historic precedent as the world's first reflex motion picture camera. Prior to this, all movie cameras had suffered parallax errors due to the viewfinder being offset to the taking lens. Although the idea of a 45 degree angled mirror reflecting light into a viewing prism worked for SLR photography, it was not feasible to flip a similar mirror up and down inside a motion picture camera. It took the combined skills of Erich Kastner (Chief Arriflex engineer) and August Arnold (Co-founder of Arriflex) to design a method, whereby this mirror rotated with the revolving shutter. Thereafter, the Arriflex 35 was born, a small and compact hand-held camera, simple to use and popular with both news cinematographers and feature filmmakers However, by today's demanding standards, the Arri 35 is almost an antique, updated by the 35/2 in 1946 and the 2A in 1953. Improvements and modifications continued, a variable shutter being added to the 2B in 1960 and finally the last and most popular of the range, the 2C, introduced in 1964. Although features and functions differ across the range, the cameras operation is fundamentally the same. The motor is a tubular type, mounted vertically on the base of the camera and acting as a handgrip. Rheostat versions offer variable speed control, adjusted by turning the rotating collar on the motor housing. The lens turret has 3 lens ports. Shutters differ across the range. The IIC has a fixed 180 degree shutter, whereas the 3C has an adjustable 165 degree shutter.

The Aaton range of 16mm and Super 16mm cameras compete directly with the Arriflex SR range. The LTR7 consists of a steel constructed body enabling 400ft magazines to be 'clipped on' without the need for threading. Lightweight onboard batteries are designed to slot into the camera on a horizontal plane with the magazine. A considerable improvement over bulky Arri SR1/2 onboard batteries. The motor has internal crystal control circuitry and by turning a recessed dial, the running speed can be adjusted in fps of 6/12/16/18/20/X/40/54. X being the crystal locking speed, adjusted by a switch beneath the motor cover (24 or 25fps). The 54fps is only available to later LTR models when a lightweight pulldown claw was introduced. The cameras is lighter and more ergonomic than the SR1. The curvature of the 400ft magazines designed to hug the shoulder comfortably. Unlike the Arriflex range, Aaton does not contain a steady pin on the film-movement, but the image steadiness by comparison is the same. The reflex shutter is also adjustable from 0 to 180 degrees, accessible through the lens port. The Aaton lens mount consists of 3 rectangular flanges on the collar of the lens, which sit into matching slots. The lens is turned and locked with a lever on the circumference of the lens port. A well maintained Aaton - when running without a magazine - gives a distinctive purr which is slightly quieter than that of the Arriflex SR1. In studio conditions, the camera is exceptional. However, being much more fragile than the Arriflex SR range, it does not seem to have obtained the same reputation for durability.

Eclair began manufacture of the NPR to compete with the Arriflex BL. It's purpose was to cater for the ever growing TV and news gathering market. Without magazine or lens, the camera body is little more than an 'L' shaped chassis. The motor is located on the base and is designed for easy removal, via 4 rotatable lugs, which hold it in place. The shutter is adjustable from 0 to 180° and the motor drive is magnetic, thereby ensuring that the reflex mirror always stops in the optical path. This eliminates the need for an inching knob to manually retrieve a picture through the viewfinder as is the case with the Arri 16 BL The motor is not internally crystal controlled but the addition of a Perfectone controller enables a 24/25fps locking speed as well as variable speed control (up to approx. 48fps). Smaller and more compact motors and controllers are also available. The lens turret has both C-mount and CA mount ports fitted, rotateable beneath a central locking knob. The viewfinder is orientable and with the addition of an Angenieux viewfinder, the image is self-leveling. CP viewfinders can also be fitted to the NPR. The magazine is a 400ft coaxial type, which allows all threading to be done inside the magazine and then quickly clipped onto the camera body. When running the NPR is considerably quieter than the Arriflex BL. There is also no need to blimp the lenses as with the BL. In fact, a well serviced and maintained NPR can run as quietly as an Aaton LTR; a camera 4 times the price! Although not as durable as the earlier Arriflex range, it does have the capacity to be readily converted to Super 16mm.

French designers Anston Coma and Jacques Lecoeur amalgamated initials for the new design of 16mm Éclair cameras: and so introduced the ACL. Retaining many of the features of the NPR, the ACL was designed as a portable and extremely lightweight alternative. In place of the cumbersome motor attached to the bottom of the NPR, the ACL motor is designed to plug into the side. Retained with three screws, the motor is nothing more than a slim rectangular box, running on 12V dc. Unlike the NPR, the ACL shutter is nonadjustable, fixed at 175°. The reflex mirror is fixed onto a swinging pendulum armature. The turret is a single C-mount lens port, designed to accept an adapter which will convert readily to Éclair or Arriflex mount. The camera also contains a bloop switch and lamp, to aid post-synching of sound with film. 200ft and 400ft coaxial magazines are available, which clip directly onto the camera body for instantaneous shooting. Several handgrips are also available, allowing attachment to either the base or side of the camera body. A well maintained ACL has a very low running noise and combined with it's low weight makes it an excellent choice for portability shooting. However, the camera gradually obtained a reputation for unreliability, when the original fixed speed motors began to burn out. The problem was due to the introduction of 400ft magazines, which the tiny motor could not cope with. Éclair introduced a higher-powered multi-motor which solved the problem but at considerable expense to the customer. When manufacture of the ACL was moved to England, a new 400ft magazine was developed with a separate drive arm that took much of the torque away from the motor. However, today, many people refer to these set-ups as ACL I and ACL II, a designation never assigned by the manufacturer. For most, the distinction is the country of origin engraved onto the camera body; I for England and II for France. This is mis-leading as both countries built the ACL to identical specification and there are no improvements or discrepancies between the two (Except that English bodies are later than French). The only difference in ACL manufacture has been between the standard and multi-motor. The standard motor will only drive English 400ft mags and not French versions. The multi-motor has a variable speed control, as well as locked crystal speeds and will drive both sets of magazines. When buying an ACL it is always best to check that the motor supplied will drive the magazines available. But adding a multi-motor to your kit could cost as much as $2000 extra.

What is Crystal Control? A crystal controlled motor's purpose is to regulate the running speed of a camera to a very precise amount. Most film productions utilize separate sound units, which record as the camera shoots and this must be matched up with the processed film in editing. Although a tape recorder seems to record and playback at an identical speed, the motor fluctuates very slightly. Combined with similar variations in the camera motor, when the two are played together, each drifts away from the next. They become unsynchronized. Therefore, a way has to be found to ensure that both camera and sound are always running at EXACTLY the same speed. This is achieved with an electronic device known as a crystal controller. The heart of which contains a tiny piece of quartz crystal (identical to those found in modern watches). This crystal - when supplied with a voltage - vibrates at an incredibly precise speed. By lowering this speed to a desired amount, a clock is created precise to often more than .003% of a millisecond! When this clock is used to govern the speed of a motion picture camera, the result is almost perfect synchronization. This means, any other device using the same clock, will also be running at this 'perfect' speed. Many portable tape decks such as the Uher and Nagra contain these crystals, as do almost all 'newer' motion picture cameras. Older cameras, such as the Arriflex BL and Eclair NPR have crystal controllers applied externally: Tobin, Minilock and Jensen. There are many different brands but the fundamentals are always the same: The controller regulates the speed of the motor by supplying quick bursts of battery current (usually 1000's of times a second) so that the motor is switching on and off repeatedly, in sympathy with the clock. The end result is that many different devices will remain 'locked' at this designated speed. This means that sound and picture will not 'drift'. With the increased preference of transferring film to videotape, usage of HMI and fluorescent lighting, filming video and TV monitors etc. this crystal locking becomes even more crucial. To ensure a flicker-free result, all these devices must be operating at the same speed. In Europe, the most popular crystal speed is 25fps. The reason for this is mostly due to the telecine transfer rate. This, in turn, has been determined by both the television broadcast standards (most commonly PAL) and domestic mains frequency (50 hertz). Synchronization is obtained by halving the mains frequency, thereby obtaining a 25fps rate. In the USA the mains frequency is at 60hz and by applying the same process a locking speed of 30fps has become increasingly popular. However, telecine in the USA more commonly adopts a process known as drop-frame, which enables synchronization of a 24fps shooting speed. More importantly, 24fps is the generally accepted projection speed for film of all formats, worldwide.

What is Super 16mm? Super 16mm is a modification of standard 16mm whereby the width of the exposed frame is increased by 20%. The Super 16mm format was designed in the late 1960's by Rune Ericson - a Scandinavian cinematographer - but was not widely accepted until the late 1980's. The reason for this was mostly due to the development of HDTV (High Definition Television) The format of a standard 16mm frame is 1.33:1. This is a rather square format which has happily suited television screens for many decades. The newly designated format of HDTV is 1.66:1 which is identical to the ratio of Super 16mm. (However the USA HDTV format is 1.77:1) The Super 16mm format is achieved by extending the width of the film gate to cover the area more commonly used by magnetic film stripe or double perforations. The popularity of transferring film to video and mastering sound directly to video tape has meant a decline in the usage of soundstriped film. This means, an area that would previously be unexposed during film-making, can be utilized for even more picture information. The end result - although technically a widescreen format - creates a much sharper image when transferred to videotape or blown up to 35mm. This has enabled low budget filmmakers to avoid the high expense of shooting with 35mm and opt for a more economical and portable format within Super 16mm. (Such as Mike Figgis' Leaving Las Vegas) However, opting for S16 is not without it's drawbacks. The worst of which are the astronomical prices of S16 lenses, very few of which are available on the secondhand market. Some standard 16mm primes and zooms will still cover this extended frame, but it still seems to be a subject for debate as to which lenses these are. Converting an existing standard 16mm camera to Super 16mm is not just a case of extending the gate width. Many magazines and rollers are designed to treat this extra 20% as little more than a means of supporting or transporting the film through the camera. Without professional modification to such rogue transportation, scratches and marks will appear on the film. The optical path also has to be realigned to ensure that the center of the lens barrel coincides with the center of the Super 16mm frame and this can be the most costly part of the conversion. Typically - depending on the camera - you could expect to pay upward of $3000 for a successful conversion. Some cameras cannot be converted to S16 at all, so it's best to consult an engineer before considering such an undertaking.

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